In the world of law enforcement and criminal investigations, the skills and strategies employed during interviews and interrogations are crucial for gathering information and solving cases. This article presents an extensive glossary of terms, jargon, acronyms, and slang commonly used in these critical processes. It's important to note that while some terms describe effective and ethically sound techniques, others pertain to methods that are coercive, unethical, or based on pseudoscientific principles. Insight & Integrity solely includes these latter practices for informative purposes and does not endorse them. Our goal is to educate and inform about the diverse tactics employed in law enforcement, aiding professionals in distinguishing between approved methods and those that are controversial, outright illegal, or are not recommended for good information-gathering endeavors.
24/24 Rule – A guideline in homicide investigations that highlights the critical importance of examining both the last 24 hours of a murder victim's life and the first 24 hours after the body is discovered. Information gathered during these time frames is often crucial in understanding the victim's activities, identifying potential suspects, and preserving key evidence to build a strong case.
295 - Police code in some jurisdictions for conducting an interview or interrogation.
ABE Interviews (Achieving Best Evidence) - Guidelines set by the UK Home Office for conducting interviews with children and vulnerable witnesses, ensuring the evidence collected is robust and can be used in court.
ABC - "Always Be Corroborating" (ixi)
Active Listening – A listening skill that involves fully engaging with the speaker to understand both the content of their message and the emotions or attitudes behind it. Active listening, also known as empathic listening, focuses on interpreting both the factual information and the speaker’s feelings toward that information. By rephrasing the message and reflecting it back, the listener confirms understanding without adding advice, judgment, or logical analysis. This approach is typically more effective than passive listening in building rapport and ensuring clarity.
Adaptation - Altering your agenda in response to the subject rather than rigidly adhering to your interview plan.
Admission - A statement by a suspect acknowledging certain facts that imply guilt but does not directly confess to a crime.
ADVOKATE - An acronym for a structured framework used by law enforcement to assess and document the reliability of eyewitness statements. Each letter represents a critical factor: Amount of time under observation, Distance between the witness and the suspect/incident, Visibility conditions such as lighting and time of day, Obstructions that may have blocked the view, whether the suspect was Known to the witness before, Any reasons to remember the suspect, the Time lapse between the observation and identification, and any Errors or discrepancies in the witness's account. This method emphasizes the importance of accuracy, objectivity, and attention to detail in police statement writing, helping investigators evaluate the reliability of eyewitness testimony (UK).
Affirmation - Positive feedback is given to the interviewee to reinforce openness and sharing.
AFM - Army Field Manual
AG - Attorney General
Alibi Check - Verification of a suspect's claim about their whereabouts at the time of a crime.
ALS - Active Listening Skills
Alternative Question (AKA the "Kill Question") (accusatory) - An interrogation technique in which the investigator presents the suspect with two contrasting explanations or scenarios, both implying some level of involvement in the offense. One of the choices is typically framed in a more morally positive or face-saving light, such as whether the act was spontaneous rather than planned. While both options suggest guilt, the technique encourages the suspect to choose one, thereby indirectly admitting to the offense. This approach is designed to make admission easier by offering a “positive” choice that can feel less incriminating to the suspect, although both are incriminating (often leading).
Anchoring Bias - The tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.
ATQ - Ask The Question
Autonomy - Respecting or emphasizing a subject's right to cooperate, talk, engage, or not do anything.
BAI - The Behavioral Analysis Interview is a component of the Reid Technique, a method developed for law enforcement interrogations.
Baseline - The normal, non-stress behavior of a person used for comparison during an interrogation.
Basic Interrogatives - Fundamental questions used in interrogations that include who, what, when, where, why, and how, intended to gather comprehensive information.
Behavior Provoking Questions (BPQs) (accusatory) - Questions designed to elicit behavioral responses that may indicate truthfulness or deception. These questions are structured to provoke observable reactions, aiding the investigator in assessing the subject's credibility (pseudoscience warning).
Behavioral Pause - A deliberate silence by the interviewer to give the interviewee time to think and potentially reveal more information.
Bluffing - Suggesting possession of more information than actually held to elicit confessions or information from suspects.
Box - Slang for the interrogation room.
Breaking - The process of getting a suspect to admit, confess, or provide crucial information during an interrogation.
Case File - A comprehensive collection of all documents, evidence, notes, and reports related to a particular investigation.
CBCA - see Criteria-Based Content Analysis
Challenge Assumptions - In an investigative red teaming context involves critically evaluating the foundational beliefs and conclusions that guide an investigation. This process helps identify and address biases such as confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and availability heuristic, which can distort the interpretation of evidence or lead investigators to prematurely focus on a specific theory.
Challenge Question - A query designed to see if the suspect will lie, establishing a pattern of behavior.
CID - Criminal Investigation Division
CIS - Cognitive Interview for Suspects
CIT - Counter Interrogation Tactics
CJS - Criminal Justice System
Closed-Ended Questions - Questions that can be answered with a single word, yes or no, or a short phrase.
Coerced-Compliant False Confessions - These happen when individuals confess to crimes they did not commit due to intense pressure during the interrogation process. This type of false confession often arises from a desire to escape a stressful interrogation, avoid a threatened or implied harsh punishment, or gain a promised or implied reward, such as being allowed to go home. The suspect does not necessarily believe in their guilt but sees confession as a strategy to reduce their immediate suffering.
Coerced-Internalized False Confessions - This type of false confession occurs when suspects become convinced, during the course of an interrogation, that they might have committed the crime, despite having no memory of the event. This can happen through the suggestive techniques used by interrogators, the exhaustion or mental state of the suspect, or the introduction of fabricated evidence. The suspect comes to believe they are guilty of the crime, often reconstructing their memories to align with the confession.
Coercion - Using force or threats to obtain compliance or information.
Cognitive Credibility Assessment (CCA) – A verbal lie detection technique that employs specific interview strategies to distinguish between truth-tellers and liars. CCA operates on the premise that truthful individuals and deceptive individuals rely on different cognitive processes and strategies to present themselves as believable.
Cognitive Interviewing (CI) - A method used to enhance memory retrieval of witnesses and victims by focusing on sensory details and context, which may lead to more accurate recall (Memory-enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview.)
Cognitive Load - The mental effort required to process information, which can be manipulated to detect deception.
Confession - A statement or admission by an individual that acknowledges facts proving their responsibility for all elements of a crime.
Confession-Driven – An approach to interviewing or interrogation where the primary goal is to obtain a confession, often at the expense of gathering comprehensive, case-relevant information. Often utilizes pseudoscience. This method prioritizes admission of guilt over objective fact-finding.
Confirmation Bias - The tendency to favor information that confirms one's existing beliefs during an investigation.
Confrontation - Directly addressing inconsistencies or evidence against the interviewee.
Control Question - A question used to establish a baseline of behavior to help detect deceit.
Corroboration - The process of confirming or supporting a statement, theory, or finding with additional evidence or testimony.
Counter-Interrogation Strategies - Techniques used by suspects to resist or mislead during questioning, such as feigning ignorance or providing partial truths.
CPIA - Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act (FBI).
CREST - The Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats (UK).
Criteria-Based Content Analysis (CBCA) - systematic method used to evaluate the credibility of verbal statements by analyzing their content against established psychological and linguistic criteria. It is based on the principle that truthful statements, derived from real experiences, exhibit specific characteristics such as logical structure, contextual detail, and descriptions of sensory impressions. Widely applied in forensic and legal contexts, CBCA helps assess whether a narrative is likely truthful or fabricated, though it requires skilled interpretation and is most effective when combined with other investigative techniques.
Custodial Interrogation - the questioning of a suspect by law enforcement officers after the individual has been taken into custody or under arrest.
DA - District Attorney / Domestic Abuse
Debrief - Gathering information post-operation or post-interview.
Deception Detection - Techniques used to identify signs of lying or deceit by a subject during an interview.
Denno hearing - A pretrial proceeding where a judge determines whether a defendant's confession was given voluntarily and is admissible in court. Named after the U.S. Supreme Court case Jackson v. Denno (1964), this hearing ensures that the confession was not obtained through coercion, threats, or other violations of the defendant's constitutional rights. It is conducted outside the jury's presence to prevent prejudicing the trial (US).
Dependent Corroboration - When the suspect's confession includes details that match the hold-back information known only to the investigator.
Devil's Advocate - A red teaming technique where an investigator (usually independent) challenges assumptions and evidence by taking an opposing viewpoint to uncover biases and explore alternative explanations.
Direct Approach - Starting an interrogation by directly accusing the suspect of the crime.
Disclose / Disclosure - In the context of victim interviews or forensic interviews, to report or reveal a crime, typically referring to the act of reporting a sexual assault.
DIX - Detectives
Dry Run - A practice session of an interview or interrogation without the actual subject.
Due Process - The legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person, balancing the power of law of the land and protecting the individual person from it.
EAT MORE PIES - Active listening acronym (ixi)
ECI - Enhanced Cognitive Interview (sometimes just called "CI").
Effective Pause – A moment of intentional silence during active listening, allowing space for the speaker to think, expand on their thoughts, or share additional information. Pauses can also help emphasize important points and encourage deeper reflection, demonstrating patience and attentiveness on the part of the listener.
EFM - Evidence Framing Matrix (Strategic Use of Evidence)
Elicitation - Obtaining information without revealing the intent or the interest of the interviewer.
Emotional Labeling - Active listening technique where the listener identifies and names the speaker's feelings.
Empathy - The ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
Enhanced Interrogation - Techniques that apply psychological pressure, often controversial, used to elicit information.
Equivocation - Indirect statements or answers that avoid commitment to a truth.
Evocation - Eliciting statements from the suspect about their feelings, thoughts, values, or beliefs. May be done through evocation-based questions.
EWT - Eyewitness Testimony
Exculpatory Statement: A statement made by a suspect that denies guilt or provides an explanation inconsistent with involvement in the crime.
Fact-Finding Interview - A non-accusatory interview designed to gather information without presumption of guilt.
False Confession - A false confession is an admission of guilt for a crime that the confessor did not commit. This can occur due to coercion, fear, misunderstanding, or psychological pressure during interrogation.
False Evidence Ploy (accusatory) - A false evidence ploy or FEP is an interrogation technique used by law enforcement where the interrogator presents fictitious evidence or fabricates information to convince a suspect that they have been conclusively linked to a crime. The purpose of this tactic is to elicit a confession or obtain additional information by making the suspect believe that denying involvement is futile.
False Exculpatory Statements - Statements made by a suspect to deflect suspicion or establish innocence but are found to be false through corroborated statement evidence or physical evidence. These statements typically include false alibis, fabricated explanations, or misleading details intended to counter accusations or evidence against the suspect.
Field Interrogation or Field Interview (FI) – A short, on-the-spot interaction between a police officer and an individual, where the officer asks questions to gather information. The primary purpose is to verify the person’s identity and address any immediate suspicions of criminal activity.
FLETC Five-Step - The FLETC Five-Step is a structured interviewing technique developed by the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC). It is designed to enhance the effectiveness of interviews conducted by law enforcement officers.
Forensic Interview - a recorded conversation between a child and a specially trained interviewer that is used to gather information for a legal setting, such as a court hearing.
Funnel Approach - Starting with broad, open-ended questions and gradually narrowing down to more specific questions.
GIB - General Investigation Bureau
Good Cop/Bad Cop - An interrogation approach where two officers take seemingly opposing approaches to elicit information from a suspect.
Grill - To question someone intensely and persistently, often used to describe a rigorous interrogation.
Groupthink - A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when the desire for harmony or conformity results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.
Guided Discussion - An interview technique where the interviewer suggests topics but allows the interviewee to provide detailed content.
Guilt Bias - A preconceived notion held by interrogators that assumes the guilt of the suspect, which can influence the conduct and outcome of an interrogation. Reliance on pseudoscientific techniques can increase guilt bias.
Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) - A polygraph technique that assesses if the subject knows details of the crime that only the perpetrator would know.
Hearsay - Information received from others that cannot be substantiated, often inadmissible in court but used in investigative contexts.
HIG - High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (FBI/CID/DOD) - A Specialized, interagency unit established to develop, implement, and refine science-based interviewing and interrogation techniques for high-stakes national security cases. Formed in 2009, the HIG is a collaboration primarily involving the FBI, the Department of Defense, and the CIA. Its mission includes sponsoring/conducting research to improve interrogation strategies, developing non-coercive, evidence-based methods, and training law enforcement and intelligence professionals in effective interview techniques. The HIG also provides operational support, deploying teams when needed for high-value interrogation cases and offering guidance to improve information gathering through ethical and scientifically grounded approaches.
Holmes 2 System - A computer system used by UK police forces to manage major investigations, including the management of interviews and other data.
HUMINT (Human Intelligence) - The gathering of information from human sources through methods like interviews, interrogations, and covert interactions. It focuses on interpersonal communication to obtain intelligence for strategic, operational, or tactical purposes, often used in military, law enforcement, and intelligence operations.
I&I (Interview and Interrogation) - The formal processes used by law enforcement to gather information from suspects, witnesses, and victims through interviews.
IIISC - Initial Investigative Interview Skills Course (Scottish Police College).
Implicit Accusation - Subtly suggesting involvement in a crime during questioning to observe reactions without making direct accusations.
Inculpatory Statement - A statement that implies or admits guilt, often used as evidence.
Independent Corroboration When a suspect reveals a detail about the crime that the investigator did not know beforehand, and this detail can be verified independently.
Informant - A person who provides privileged information about a person or organization to an agency. The term usually describes someone who can supply useful intelligence regarding criminal or other nefarious activities.
Invoked - "Invoked" refers to the act of calling upon a legal right or procedure. For example, a suspect might invoke their right to remain silent or their right to legal counsel, as guaranteed by the "Miranda Rights" in the United States.
Jackson v. Denno (1964) - A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the requirement for a pretrial hearing to determine the voluntariness and admissibility of a defendant's confession. The Court ruled that a confession must be evaluated by a judge in a separate hearing (outside the jury's presence) to ensure it was not coerced or obtained in violation of the defendant’s constitutional rights. This decision safeguards a defendant’s Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment rights and prevents potentially coerced confessions from influencing a jury.
Justifying Devices - These are explanations or excuses that help the suspect save face during an interrogation.
Kill Questions - See alternative question
Knowingly - With full awareness and intentionality.
KREATIV - (K) Communication, (R) Rule of law, (E) Ethics and Empathy, (A) Active consciousness, (T) Trust through openess, (I) Information, and (Verified through science (Norway).
Language Style Matching (LSM) - The synchronization of linguistic styles between interviewers and interviewees, which can influence the outcomes of interrogations.
Lead Assessment - Evaluating the credibility and relevance of information received during an interview.
LEO (Law Enforcement Officer) - An all-encompassing designation that refers to all commissioned personnel. Includes police officers, sheriff's deputies, detectives, investigators, sergeants, agents, elected sheriffs, police chiefs, special agents, and constables.
Looping - Revisiting a subject's earlier statements for clarification and further detail.
Maximization (accusatory) - An interrogation strategy where the investigator exaggerates the strength of the evidence and the seriousness of the offense to induce a confession. This approach aims to make the suspect believe that denial is futile.
MCM - Major Case Manager (Canada)
Memory-Compatible Questions - Questions designed to align with the natural way memories are stored and retrieved, facilitating more accurate and detailed recall.
Mendez Principles - A set of guidelines proposed by Juan E. Méndez, the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, aimed at protecting individuals from torture and ill-treatment during interrogation and detention.
MG11 - The official form used for recording witness statements in the UK, which can be used as evidence in court proceedings.
Minimal Encouragers – (ALS) Brief, positive verbal and non-verbal responses, including words like “yes,” “uh-huh,” and “okay,” as well as engaged facial expressions and nodding. These subtle cues show attentiveness and encourage the speaker to keep talking, fostering an open environment for sharing more information without interrupting their narrative.
Minimization (accusatory) - A technique involving downplaying the moral or psychological seriousness of the offense, offering the suspect moral justifications or face-saving excuses. This method seeks to make confession more palatable by reducing the perceived severity of the act.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966) - is a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the requirement for law enforcement to inform individuals of their rights before custodial interrogation. Known as "Miranda rights," these include the right to remain silent, the warning that anything said can be used against them in court, and the right to an attorney, whether provided privately or appointed. This decision aimed to protect the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination and ensure fair treatment during interactions with law enforcement.
Miranda Warning (AKA Miranda Rights, Miranda) - A legal requirement to inform arrested individuals of their rights, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney.
Misinformation Effect - The phenomenon where a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to post-event information.
Mister Big Technique (Mr. Big) - The "Mr. Big" technique is an undercover investigative strategy developed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) to obtain confessions from suspects, often in cold cases. In this method, undercover officers create a fictitious criminal organization and involve the suspect in staged criminal activities to build trust. Eventually, the suspect is introduced to the group’s leader, "Mr. Big," who demands a confession to past crimes as a prerequisite for joining the organization or for securing protection. However, the technique is controversial, with critics warning it can produce false confessions, due to the coercive tactics, inducements, and psychological manipulation involved. In 2014, the Supreme Court of Canada (Hart decision) ruled that confessions obtained using Mr. Big tactics will be presumed inadmissible unless the Crown (prosecution) can show certain standards were met, requiring oversight to confirm that any confessions are reliable and voluntarily made, given the risk of entrapment and manipulation (Canada).
Mnemonics – Memory-enhancing techniques used in the Cognitive Interview to help witnesses recall details more effectively. Mnemonics may include tools such as mental reinstatement of context, changing the order of events, and focusing on specific sensory details. These techniques facilitate deeper retrieval of stored memories, aiding in the accuracy and completeness of witness statements.
Model Statement (Cognitive Interview) - A detailed and neutral example of how an interviewee should structure their response, designed to encourage thorough and accurate information during the cognitive interview.
Monitored Call - A telephone call conducted by a suspect under surveillance, often used to gather incriminating evidence.
MORE PIES - Active listening acronym (FBI crisis negotiations)
Motivational Interviewing (MI) - A technique used in interrogation to build rapport and elicit information through empathy, reflective listening, and supporting autonomy.
Mental Reinstatement of Context (MRC) - A technique used in cognitive interviews to help eyewitnesses recall memories. The technique involves asking the interviewee to mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the event, such as sights, sounds, feelings, and emotions, as well as the weather.
Naked Confessions – Confessions that lack corroborating evidence or independent verification, making them stand alone without support from additional facts or witness statements.
National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement (1929) - see Wickersham Commission
NDAA - National Defense Authorization Act or the McCain-Feinstein Anti-Torture Amendemnt.
Negative Statement - See False Exculpatory Statement
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) - A psychological approach that links language, behavior, and thought patterns, sometimes applied to lie detection by interpreting verbal cues, body language, and eye movements as indicators of deception. NLP practitioners suggest that certain behaviors, like specific eye directions or speech patterns, may reveal hidden emotions or dishonesty. However, NLP is widely criticized and lacks empirical support in lie detection, as its techniques are not reliably correlated with deception, leading many experts to consider it a pseudoscientific method within evidence-based interrogation.
Neutral Question - A question posed that does not imply or give away case details.
NICHD - National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
NICHD Protocol - a structured interview guide designed to improve the quality and quantity of information obtained from children during investigative interviews about alleged abuse. It emphasizes the use of open-ended questions and phased, non-suggestive techniques to elicit detailed and reliable testimonies from child witnesses.
OARS - (conversational rapport) Open-ended questions, affirmations, reflections, and summaries.
Off-the-Record - Informal conversations that are implied not to be part of the official interrogation.
OI - Officer Involved
OII - Officer Involved Incident
OIS - Officer Involved Shooting
ORBIT (Observing Rapport-Based Interrogative Techniques) - A framework used primarily in the UK that guides police officers and investigators in managing and interviewing cooperative suspects. ORBIT focuses on building rapport and using non-coercive methods to elicit information and confessions, based on psychological research into how best to influence behavior and gain cooperation.
OSINT - Open-Source Intelligence, which involves collecting information from publicly available sources.
Overcoming Objections (accusatory) - Strategies used to address and refute the suspect's objections to admitting guilt. The investigator listens to the objections and turns them into opportunities to further the interrogation process.
PACE - Codes of Practice that provide the police rules and guidelines for the detention, treatment, and questioning of persons by UK police officers under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE).
Paradox of Eyewitness Testimony - Although EWT is regarded by many professionals as having a low level of reliability, it is the most important form of testimony as far as jurors are concerned.
Pause – A moment of intentional silence during active listening, allowing space for the speaker to think, expand on their thoughts, or share additional information. Pauses can also help emphasize important points and encourage deeper reflection, demonstrating patience and attentiveness on the part of the listener.
PEACE Model - An ethical interviewing method used by UK police, standing for Preparation and Planning, Engage, and Explain, Account, Closure, and Evaluate. It emphasizes a non-coercive approach to interviewing suspects, witnesses, and victims.
Peacocking - Displaying authority or dominance in an interrogation setting.
Peer Review - In the context of law enforcement, particularly related to interview and interrogation (I&I), peer review involves the evaluation of investigative work, including big cases and forensic interviews, by other professionals in the field. This process ensures adherence to ethical standards, accuracy, and the effectiveness of the methods used. The term is widely applied across various instances within I&I to maintain or enhance the quality of the investigative processes. Additionally, research related to I&I methods and practices is also subject to peer review before publication in academic journals, ensuring that the findings are scrutinized and validated by expert peers in the field.
Phubbing - The act of snubbing someone in a social setting, or in an interview, by looking at your phone instead of paying attention to the person you're with.
PIP - Professionalising Investigation Programme (College of Policing, UK).
Pitch – (speech) The level of highness or lowness in a person’s voice. While everyone has a natural pitch, it can vary depending on different situations or emotional states.
Plead the Fifth - A common phrase in the United States referring to an individual’s right to invoke the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, allowing them to decline to answer questions where the responses might incriminate them.
Post-Confession Contamination - This occurs when an investigator's actions or questions after a confession influence or alter a suspect's memory or account of the events, compromising the confession's accuracy.
Post-Event Information - Information presented to a witness or involved party after an event has occurred, which can alter or distort their memory of the original event. This effect is a critical consideration in legal contexts where witness reliability is paramount.
Pretext Phone Call - An investigative technique where a suspect is called by someone they know, and the call is monitored by law enforcement.
PRICE - Planning and Preparation; Rapport building; Information gathering; Confirming the content; and Evaluation and action (Scottish Police).
Prisoner's Dilemma - An interrogation tactic where investigators separate two or more suspects and tell each other that the other is confessing or cooperating, implying that whoever confesses first could get the better deal. The typical prisoner's dilemma is set up so that both parties choose to protect themselves at the expense of the other participant, but the investigator gets a confession regardless.
Project Aletheia - Project Aletheia is a platform for bridging the gap between science and practice in interrogation, spanning the breadth of law enforcement and the national security space. The premise of the Project is that we are stronger together, that we can mutually benefit from each other’s knowledge and experience. Founded in 2020 at John Jay College of Criminal Justice at the City University of New York.
Props - Physical objects used to create an impression or influence the subject's behavior and responses (i.e large fake case file, blank VHS or DVD labeled "evidence").
Proxemics - The study of how people use and perceive physical space in interactions, including personal distance, territoriality, and spatial dynamics. It examines how physical proximity influences communication, relationships, and behavior, varying by culture, context, and individual preferences.
Rapport – A positive, trusting connection between individuals, often built through active listening, empathy, and genuine communication. In an interview or interrogation setting, establishing rapport helps create a comfortable environment where the interviewee feels respected and is more likely to share accurate, relevant information.
Rate – (speech) The speed at which a person speaks, typically measured in words per minute. The average rate of speech generally falls between 140 and 170 words per minute.
"Read Him/Her" - A slang phrase indicating that a suspect should be informed of their Miranda rights, which include the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney.
Reflection - (Active Listening Skill) - Repeating back some elements of what has been said or implied by the interviewee. Also called reflection of meaning.
Reid Technique - A method used in North America to assist detectives in interviewing suspects.
Resistance Handling - Strategies employed to manage and overcome reluctance or resistance from a subject during an interrogation.
Reverse Order (RO) - A method used in the Cognitive Interview where interviewees recount events in reverse chronological order. This approach adds to cognitive load and disrupts scripted or rehearsed responses, encouraging deeper cognitive processing and often revealing additional details about an incident.
Ruse - A tactic involving deception or trickery to obtain a confession.
SAI - Self-Administered Interview is an interview method that helps witnesses provide detailed information without a law enforcement officer.
SBI - Science-Based Interviewing
Scharff Technique - an interrogation method that focuses on building rapport and subtly eliciting information without the subject realizing they are being interrogated. Developed by German interrogator Hanns Scharff during World War II. Note: Scharff's biography is a must read for anyone who conducts interviews.
Science-Based Interviewing (SBI) - An interviewing methodology that utilizes evidence-based techniques and principles derived from scientific research to enhance the accuracy and reliability of information gathered during interviews. SBI focuses on non-coercive methods, such as building rapport, active listening, strategic use of evidence, cognitive interviewing, and using open-ended questions, to elicit truthful and comprehensive responses.
Self-Administered Interview (SAI) - An interview method that helps witnesses provide detailed information without a law enforcement officer.
Self-Incrimination - The act of exposing oneself to an accusation or charge of crime; to involve oneself or another in a criminal prosecution or the danger thereof.
Sensemaking - An interrogation context provides a framework for understanding the subject’s resistance and what motivates them to engage or not.
SIO - Senior Investigating Officer.
SME (Subject Matter Expert) - An individual(s) who possesses extensive knowledge or skills in a particular area or topic, often called upon to provide detailed information, analysis, or training.
SOCPA Agreement (Serious Organised Crime and Police Act) - Allows for negotiations between the prosecution and the accused for a reduced sentence in exchange for cooperating with the investigation (UK).
Soft Accusation - An indirect way of suggesting involvement in a crime to gauge a suspect’s reaction.
Soft Interview Room - Specially designed space used for interviewing individuals—such as victims, witnesses, or vulnerable populations—in a way that promotes comfort and reduces stress. Unlike traditional, often sterile interview rooms, soft interview rooms incorporate warm colors, comfortable furniture, and a welcoming atmosphere to create a more relaxed environment. This setting helps build rapport and supports open communication, particularly with those who may feel anxious, traumatized, or intimidated. They are commonly used in law enforcement, social services, and medical fields to enhance the quality and accuracy of information gathered by putting interviewees at ease.
SoS - Shift-of-Strategy approach is an interrogation technique designed to improve interrogators' ability to obtain new information from interviewees.
Spontaneous Utterance - A statement made by a suspect or witness without prompting, which can be admissible as evidence.
Statement Analysis - The process of examining how a person phrases statements to detect deception.
Statement-evidence contradiction - a discrepancy between a person's verbal statement and the physical, documentary, technological, or testimonial evidence in a case. Identifying these contradictions is crucial in assessing the reliability of the statement and uncovering potential deception, errors, or misinterpretations in an investigation.
Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) – A technique that involves withholding key evidence until after asking targeted questions about it. This approach helps create false exculpatory statements and detect deception, as individuals who are lying may need to alter their story when confronted with previously undisclosed evidence, revealing inconsistencies.
Sweat Box – A tactic used in third-degree interrogations, where suspects were placed in rooms intentionally made unbearably hot or freezing cold, often kept there for extended hours or even days. This intense discomfort was intended to break down resistance and compel a confession.
TEDS - Tell, Explain, Describe, Show - TEDS is an acronym to assist in formulating open-ended questions and eliciting a free narrative response.
The Third Degree – A term referring to the use of extreme, coercive interrogation tactics by investigators to extract a confession from a suspect or force a statement from an uncooperative witness. These aggressive methods often involved intimidation, threats, or physical discomfort to compel compliance, raising serious ethical and reliability concerns.
Theme Development (accusatory) - The process of presenting a narrative or motive that offers the suspect a morally acceptable reason for their actions. The investigator suggests scenarios that align with the suspect's potential rationalizations, facilitating admission of guilt.
TIER Approach - A structured method for tactical interviewing used by UK police, standing for Think, Identify, Evaluate, and Respond, focusing on gathering intelligence effectively.
Timeline Technique – An interview method that assists interviewees in recalling and reporting events in chronological order for a specific period. This technique helps identify key individuals involved, link them with their actions, and clarify the sequence of events, enhancing the accuracy and coherence of the information provided.
Transition Statement - a sentence or phrase that smoothly connects one idea, topic, or section to the next, helping maintain the flow and coherence of communication (i.e. You mentioned xyz). It often incorporates words or phrases used by the subject to support memory compatibility, making shifts feel natural and aiding in the recall of previous details. In interviews, this technique is typically followed by an open-ended prompt, encouraging the subject to elaborate and explore topics more thoroughly.
Trauma-Informed Interviewing - Is an approach that recognizes and respects the impact of trauma on an individual, creating a safe, supportive environment to reduce re-traumatization. It emphasizes empathy, patience, and understanding.
Turning Up the Heat - Applying more pressure or using more intense questioning techniques to get a suspect to confess.
Undercover Interview - An interview conducted by someone who is pretending to be someone else, typically an undercover officer. See also "Mister Big Technique."
VIPER - Video Identification Parade Electronic Recording, a system used in the UK for conducting video line-ups.
Voluntary False Confessions - These occur when a person willingly confesses to a crime they did not commit without any external pressure or coercion. Reasons for a voluntary false confession may include a desire for notoriety, the need to atone for past sins, psychological issues, or a pathological desire for self-punishment. In some cases, individuals may also confess to protect the real perpetrator.
Voluntary Statement - A statement given without prompting or pressure, often seen as more credible.
Waived Rights (Miranda Warning) - Refers to the voluntary relinquishment of one's rights, such as the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney, as stated in the Miranda warning provided by law enforcement during an arrest.
Walkthrough - Asking a suspect or witness to walk through a sequence of events verbally.
WI/WA (What is/Was Asked) - Noting the questions posed during an interview or interrogation to track the information flow.
Wickersham Commission - formally known as the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, was established in 1929 by President Herbert Hoover to investigate issues in law enforcement and criminal justice in the United States. It was the first comprehensive national study of crime and policing and is particularly noted for its 1931 report that condemned the use of “third-degree” methods, or coercive and abusive interrogation techniques, which were common in policing at the time. The Commission’s findings led to significant reforms, advocating for professionalization, ethical practices, and improvements in training and accountability within law enforcement, shaping modern standards in criminal justice.
Within Statement Inconsistency - A subject contradicts their own statement.
Witness Protection - Measures taken to protect witnesses who may face danger due to their cooperation with law enforcement.
Working the Room - Moving between different interrogation rooms or suspects, often to compare stories and gather inconsistencies (see prisoner's dilemma technique).
X-Factor Question - A surprise question intended to catch the interviewee off-guard, potentially revealing inconsistencies.
Yield Approach - Techniques designed to increase the amount of information a subject is willing to disclose during an interrogation.
References:
Alison, L. J., Alison, E., Noone, G., Elntib, S., & Christiansen, P. (2013). Why tough tactics fail and rapport gets results: Observing Rapport-Based Interpersonal Techniques (ORBIT) to generate useful information from terrorists. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: An Official Law Review of the University of Arizona College of Law and the University of Miami School of Law, 19(4), 411–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034564
Alison, L. J., Alison, E., Shortland, N., & Surmon-Bohr, F. (2020). Orbit: The science of rapport-based interviewing for law enforcement, security, and military. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780197545959.001.0001
Fisher, R. P. (1992). Memory-enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview. Charles C. Thomas Publisher.
Hartwig, M., Granhag, P. A., Strömwall, L. A., & Vrij, A. (2005). Detecting deception via strategic disclosure of evidence. Law and Human Behavior, 29(4), 469–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-005-5521-x
Kassin, S. M., Drizin, S. A., Grisso, T., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., & Redlich, A. D. (2010). Police-induced confessions: risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 34(1), 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-009-9188-6
Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2012). Interview and interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 8(1), 1–53. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2012.13
Redlich, A. D., Kelly, C. E., & Miller, J. C. (2014). The who, what, and why of human intelligence gathering: Self-reported measures of interrogation methods: Who, what, and why of HUMINT. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28(6), 817–828. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3040
Trainum, James L.. How the Police Generate False Confessions: An Inside Look at the Interrogation Room. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Kindle Edition.
Vrij, A., Mann, S., & Fisher, R. P. (2006). An empirical test of the behaviour analysis interview. Law and Human Behavior, 30(3), 329–345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9014-3
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