The Ultimate Glossary of Interview and Interrogation Terms for Law Enforcement Professionals

In the world of law enforcement, corporate investigations, and criminal investigations, the skills and strategies employed during interviews and interrogations are crucial for gathering reliable information and solving cases. This article presents an extensive glossary of terms, jargon, acronyms, and slang commonly used in these critical processes. It’s important to note that while some terms describe effective and ethically sound techniques, such as Science-Based Interviewing (SBI), rapport-building, and evidence-based practices; others pertain to methods that are coercive, unethical, or rooted in pseudoscience. Insight & Integrity includes these latter practices solely for informative purposes and does not endorse them. Our goal is to educate and inform about the diverse tactics employed in investigative interviewing, aiding professionals in distinguishing between research-supported methods and those that are controversial, ineffective, or even unlawful. By doing so, we promote ethical, communication-driven approaches that strengthen both criminal and corporate investigations while protecting the integrity of outcomes.

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Interview & Interrogation Terms

24/24 Rule

A guideline in homicide investigations that highlights the critical importance of examining both the last 24 hours of a murder victim's life and the first 24 hours after the body is discovered. Information gathered during these time frames is often crucial in understanding the victim's activities, identifying potential suspects, and preserving key evidence to build a strong case.

295

Police code in some jurisdictions for conducting an interview or interrogation. 

ABE Interviews (Achieving Best Evidence)

Guidelines set by the UK Home Office for conducting interviews with children and vulnerable witnesses, ensuring the evidence collected is robust and can be used in court.  

ABC

1. "Always Be Corroborating" (ixi)

2. Assume nothing; Believe nothing; Challenge everything.

Active Listening or Active Listening Skills (ALS)

A listening skill that involves fully engaging with the speaker to understand both the content of their message and the emotions or attitudes behind it. Active listening, also known as empathic listening, focuses on interpreting both the factual information and the speaker’s feelings toward that information. By rephrasing the message and reflecting it back, the listener confirms understanding without adding advice, judgment, or logical analysis. This approach is typically more effective than passive listening in building rapport and ensuring clarity.

Adaptation

Altering your agenda in response to the subject rather than rigidly adhering to your interview plan.

Admission

A statement by a suspect acknowledging certain facts that imply guilt but does not directly confess to a crime. Goals of a confession driven process is to get an admission followed by a full confession.

ADVOKATE

An acronym for a structured framework used by law enforcement to assess and document the reliability of eyewitness statements. Each letter represents a critical factor: Amount of time under observation, Distance between the witness and the suspect/incident, Visibility conditions such as lighting and time of day, Obstructions that may have blocked the view, whether the suspect was Known to the witness before, Any reasons to remember the suspect, the Time lapse between the observation and identification, and any Errors or discrepancies in the witness's account. This method emphasizes the importance of accuracy, objectivity, and attention to detail in police statement writing, helping investigators evaluate the reliability of eyewitness testimony (UK).

Affirmation

Positive feedback is given to the interviewee to reinforce openness and sharing (Motivational Interviewing).

Army Field Manual (AFM)

Official U.S. Army doctrine publication that provide standardized guidance on tactics, techniques, procedures, and operational principles. In the context of interviewing and interrogation, certain field manuals have historically influenced questioning approaches, detention practices, and intelligence gathering, though their guidance has evolved over time in response to legal, ethical, and scientific scrutiny.

Alibi Check

Verification of a suspect's claim about their whereabouts at the time of a crime. 

Alternative Question

(AKA the "Kill Question") (accusatory) - An interrogation technique in which the investigator presents the suspect with two contrasting explanations or scenarios, both implying some level of involvement in the offense. One of the choices is typically framed in a more morally positive or face-saving light, such as whether the act was spontaneous rather than planned. While both options suggest guilt, the technique encourages the suspect to choose one, thereby indirectly admitting to the offense. This approach is designed to make admission easier by offering a “positive” choice that can feel less incriminating to the suspect, although both are incriminating (often leading). 

Anchoring Bias

The tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.

ATQ (Ask The Question)

An informal investigative shorthand reminding interviewers that, at times, clarity requires directly asking the relevant question rather than continuing indirect or incremental questioning.

Autonomy

Respecting or emphasizing a subject's right to cooperate, talk, engage, or not do anything.

Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI)

The Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI) is a pre-interrogation component of the Reid Technique designed to assess a subject’s truthfulness through a structured set of questions and observation of verbal and nonverbal behaviors. The BAI relies on the assumption that deceptive and truthful individuals display consistent, observable behavioral differences in areas such as posture, eye contact, speech patterns, and emotional responses. However, research shows the BAI does not allow investigators to reliably separate guilty from innocent individuals and that its indicators largely reflect common stereotypes about deceptive behavior. Both guilty and innocent individuals may also deliberately manage their responses during a BAI to appear innocent, further undermining its diagnostic value and increasing the risk of biased decision-making.

Baseline (Behavioral Baseline)

A behavioral baseline refers to an investigator’s assessment of a person’s normal patterns of speech, demeanor, and behavior, often established early in an interview and later used for comparison during questioning. In interview and interrogation contexts, baselines are commonly assumed to help identify deviations associated with stress or deception; however, behavioral baselines are highly context-dependent, can shift rapidly under pressure, and do not provide a reliable or scientifically validated method for detecting deception on their own.

Basic Interrogatives

A set of foundational question words used to structure information gathering in interviews and investigations: who, what, when, where, why, and how. These interrogatives help organize questioning, but the quality and reliability of the information obtained depend on how they are framed, sequenced, and delivered rather than on the words themselves.

Behavior Provoking Questions (BPQs)

Reid and Associates describe BPQs as questions intended to provoke different verbal and nonverbal responses in truth-tellers versus deceptive suspects as part of the Behavior Analysis Interview framework.

• Deception research consistently concludes that baselining is not a scientifically validated lie detection method (Bogaard, et. al., 2024; Vrij, 2016).

Behavioral Pause

A deliberate silence by the interviewer to give the interviewee time to think and potentially reveal more information (see also effective pause, pausing).

Bluffing

Bluffing involves implying that you possess more information than you actually do in order to elicit confessions or information from the suspect. 

Body-Worn Camera (BWC)

A wearable audio-video recording device used by law enforcement to document interactions with the public. BWCs are particularly valuable for capturing statement evidence in real time, preserving exact language, tone, timing, and context of spontaneous utterances and interviews, and reducing disputes over what was said or how information was obtained.

Box or The Box

Slang term for the interrogation room.

Breaking or Break Them

Breaking a suspect is the process of persuading them to admit, confess, or provide crucial information during an interrogation. This term is usually used when the interrogation hasn't produced a confession.

"Breaking the news"

"Breaking the news" refers to the use of physical coercion or third-degree interrogation as a euphemism to convey the intention of extracting a confession or information from an individual (Lavine, 1974).

Case File

A case file is a collection of all documents, evidence, notes, and reports related to a specific investigation.

Case Theory

a working hypothesis that explains what likely happened in an investigation, built from available evidence and refined as new information emerges.

Challenge Assumptions

In an investigative red teaming technique that involves critically evaluating the foundational beliefs and conclusions that guide an investigation, helping identify and address biases such as confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and availability heuristics. It also supports interview preparation by prompting better questions and ensuring relevant topics are explored, reducing the risk of prematurely locking in on a single theory and strengthening overall case development.

Challenge Question

A query designed to see if the suspect will lie, establishing a pattern of behavior.  “Before we go any further, is there any reason your account might not line up with what we later learn?”

Change Perspective (CP)

A recall technique used in the Cognitive Interview in which an interviewee is asked to mentally recount an event from a different physical or temporal perspective. The goal is to access additional memory pathways and elicit new details without suggestion or pressure. Change Perspective is used cautiously, as it can increase cognitive demand, and is intended to support information recall rather than to test credibility or induce admissions.

Closed-Ended Questions

Questions that can be answered with a single word, yes or no, or a short phrase.

Coerced-Compliant False Confessions

These happen when individuals confess to crimes they did not commit due to intense pressure during the interrogation process. This type of false confession often arises from a desire to escape a stressful interrogation, avoid a threatened or implied harsh punishment, or gain a promised or implied reward, such as being allowed to go home. The suspect does not necessarily believe in their guilt but sees confession as a strategy to reduce their immediate suffering. 

Coerced-Internalized False Confessions

This type of false confession occurs when suspects become convinced, during the course of an interrogation, that they might have committed the crime, despite having no memory of the event. This can happen through the suggestive techniques used by interrogators, the exhaustion or mental state of the suspect, or the introduction of fabricated evidence. The suspect comes to believe they are guilty of the crime, often reconstructing their memories to align with the confession.

Coercion

Using force or threats to obtain compliance or information. 

• Earl Warren, writing for the majority in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), cautioned:

  “The blood of the accused is not the only hallmark of an unconstitutional inquisition.”

Cognitive Credibility Assessment (CCA)

A verbal lie detection technique that employs specific interview strategies to distinguish between truth-tellers and liars. CCA operates on the premise that truthful individuals and deceptive individuals rely on different cognitive processes and strategies to present themselves as believable.

Cognitive Interviewing (CI)

A method used to enhance memory retrieval of witnesses and victims by focusing on sensory details and context, which may lead to more accurate recall (Memory-enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview.)

Cognitive Interview for Suspects (CIS)

An adaptation of cognitive interviewing principles applied to suspects, focusing on memory-compatible questioning and detailed recall rather than confrontation or confession pressure.

Cognitive Load

The mental effort required to process information, which can be manipulated to detect deception.

Confession

A statement or admission by an individual that acknowledges facts proving their responsibility for all elements of a crime.

Confession-Driven

An approach to interviewing or interrogation that functions as an accusatory philosophy in which guilt is presumed and the primary goal is to obtain a confession, often at the expense of gathering comprehensive, case-relevant information. This approach frequently relies on pseudoscience, prioritizes admissions over objective fact-finding, and increases the risk of investigative blindness by narrowing attention to confirming guilt rather than testing alternative explanations or corroboration.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms one's existing beliefs during an investigation. 

Confrontation

Directly addressing inconsistencies or evidence against the interviewee. 

Control Question

A question intended to elicit an emotional or physiological response that can be used as a comparison point, or “baseline,” when evaluating responses to more relevant questions; however, research shows that control questions do not reliably distinguish truthfulness from deception outside of structured polygraph formats and are vulnerable to individual differences, stress, and situational factors rather than guilt.

Conversation Management

Conversation Management is the skill of consciously guiding a communication to achieve specific goals, whether it's conveying information, building relationships, or resolving conflicts. It involves stages like opening, business, and closing, and techniques such as active listening, asking targeted questions, and preparing for difficult discussions

Corroboration

The process of confirming or supporting a statement, theory, or finding with additional evidence or testimony.

Counter Interrogation Tactics (CIT) / Counter-Interrogation Strategies

Strategies used by interviewees or suspects to resist questioning, manage impressions, or limit information disclosure during an interview or interrogation.

CREST - Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats

A UK-based research consortium that brings together academics, government, and practitioners to generate evidence-informed insights on security threats, including terrorism, extremism, and effective investigative and interviewing practices.

Criminal Investigation Division (CID)

A specialized law enforcement unit responsible for conducting serious, complex, or felony-level criminal investigations, often within military or federal jurisdictions.

Criminal Justice System (CJS)

The network of institutions, laws, and processes involved in enforcing criminal law, including law enforcement, courts, corrections, and related legal actors.

Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act (CPIA)

A UK statute governing how criminal investigations are conducted and how evidence is recorded, retained, reviewed, and disclosed to ensure fairness and transparency in the justice process

Criteria-Based Content Analysis (CBCA)

systematic method used to evaluate the credibility of verbal statements by analyzing their content against established psychological and linguistic criteria. It is based on the principle that truthful statements, derived from real experiences, exhibit specific characteristics such as logical structure, contextual detail, and descriptions of sensory impressions. Widely applied in forensic and legal contexts, CBCA helps assess whether a narrative is likely truthful or fabricated, though it requires skilled interpretation and is most effective when combined with other investigative techniques.

Custodial Interrogation

The questioning of a suspect by law enforcement officers after the individual has been taken into custody or under arrest.

Debrief

The process of gathering and reviewing information after an operation or interview, often used post-interview to assess what was learned, identify gaps, and inform follow-up actions or future questions.

Denno hearing

A pretrial proceeding where a judge determines whether a defendant's confession was given voluntarily and is admissible in court. Named after the U.S. Supreme Court case Jackson v. Denno (1964), this hearing ensures that the confession was not obtained through coercion, threats, or other violations of the defendant's constitutional rights. It is conducted outside the jury's presence to prevent prejudicing the trial (US).

Dependent Corroboration

When the suspect's confession includes details that match information known only to the investigator.

Derivative Evidence

Evidence obtained as a result of information provided by a subject, often following a confession or admission. Derivative evidence can appear corroborative while still being contaminated if the originating statement was coerced, suggestive, or false. In false confession and FCWC cases, derivative evidence may reinforce erroneous conclusions when it is not independently verified.

Detecting Deception

A set of techniques aimed at identifying lying or deceit during interviews, generally falling into two categories: cognitive-based approaches, which focus on differences in mental processes and statement content, and anxiety-based approaches (pseudoscience), commonly used in accusatory methods, which assume deception produces observable stress or nervous behaviors. Note: Accusatory systems are plagued with anxiety-based approaches.

Devil's Advocate Approach (DA)

A red teaming technique where an investigator (usually independent) challenges assumptions and evidence by taking an opposing viewpoint to uncover biases and explore alternative explanations. 

Direct Approach

Starting an interrogation by directly accusing the suspect of the crime. 

Disclose / Disclosure

In the context of victim interviews or forensic interviews, to report or reveal a crime, typically referring to the act of reporting a sexual assault.

DIX

Slang term for detectives

Dry Run

A practice session of an interview or interrogation without the actual subject. 

Due Process

The U.S. legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person, balancing the power of law of the land and protecting the individual person from it (5th Amendment; 14th Amendment)

EAT MORE PIES

Active listening acronym (ixi)

Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI)

Enhanced Cognitive Interview (sometimes just called "CI").

Effective Pause

A moment of intentional silence during active listening, allowing space for the speaker to think, expand on their thoughts, or share additional information. Pauses can also help emphasize important points and encourage deeper reflection, demonstrating patience and attentiveness on the part of the listener.

Evidence Framing Matrix (EFM)

A planning tool used within the Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) framework to organize known evidence before questioning. The EFM helps investigators decide how, supporting better questions and improving the ability to test accounts and strengthen the probative value of statement evidence.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

The ability to recognize, understand, manage, and respond effectively to one’s own emotions and the emotions of others, supporting rapport building, self-regulation, and adaptive communication during interviews and interrogations.

Elicitation

The process of obtaining information from an individual without revealing the interviewer’s specific intent, priorities, or information gaps, often through indirect questioning, conversational techniques, or strategic dialogue rather than overt interrogation.

Emotional Labeling

An active listening technique in which the listener identifies and explicitly names the speaker’s underlying emotions, helping validate feelings, build rapport, and encourage further disclosure.

Empathy

The ability to understand and share another person’s emotional experience, allowing the interviewer to respond in a way that demonstrates understanding, respect, and human connection.

Enhanced Interrogation Techniques (EIT)

A term used to describe interrogation techniques involving coercive psychological pressure, widely criticized following the post-9/11 detainee abuse scandals revealed publicly in 2008. These practices prompted legal, ethical, and scientific scrutiny and directly contributed to the creation of the High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG), which was established to replace coercive methods with lawful, evidence-based, and science-driven approaches to information gathering.

Equivocation

Indirect statements or answers that avoid commitment to a truth. 

Evocation

Eliciting statements from the suspect about their feelings, thoughts, values, or beliefs. May be done through evocation-based questions.

Exculpatory Statement

A statement made by a suspect that denies guilt or provides an explanation inconsistent with involvement in the crime.

Fact-Finding Interview

An interview designed to gather information without presumption of guilt. 

False Confession

A false confession is an admission of guilt for a crime that the confessor did not commit. This can occur due to coercion, fear, misunderstanding, or psychological pressure during interrogation.

False Confession, Wrongful Conviction (FCWC)

This term refers to cases in which an individual falsely confesses, is subsequently convicted, and the true perpetrator or perpetrators remain at large. FCWC cases illustrate how false confessions can anchor investigative decision-making, contaminate evidence interpretation, and suppress alternative hypotheses. From a Science-Based Interviewing perspective, FCWC cases highlight the necessity of treating statements as evidence that must be evaluated and tested rather than accepted as proof.

False Evidence Ploy (FEP)

An accusatory interrogation tactic in which an interviewer falsely claims the existence of incriminating evidence or fabricates investigative information to convince a suspect that denial is futile. The primary purpose of an FEP is to elicit a confession or additional statements, but its use raises significant concerns about reliability, voluntariness, and the risk of false confessions.

False Exculpatory Statements

False exculpatory statements, also known as negative statements or provable lies, are statements made by a suspect to deflect suspicion or establish innocence and are shown to be false through corroborated statement evidence or physical evidence. Within the Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) framework, these statements are especially valuable because they are generated prior to evidence disclosure, allowing investigators to test accounts and reveal inconsistencies; notably, jury research shows that proven false exculpatory statements can be as persuasive to jurors as confessions (Brimbal & Jones, 2018).

Field Interrogation or Field Interview (FI)

A short, on-the-spot interaction between a police officer and an individual, where the officer asks questions to gather information. The primary purpose is to verify the person’s identity and address any immediate suspicions of criminal activity.

FLETC Five-Step

The FLETC Five-Step is a structured interviewing technique developed by the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC). It is designed to enhance the effectiveness of interviews conducted by law enforcement officers. 

Forensic Interview

A recorded conversation between a child and a specially trained interviewer that is used to gather information for a legal setting, such as a court hearing (US). 

Funnel Approach

Starting with broad, open-ended questions and gradually narrowing down to more specific questions.

"Giving him the works."

"Giving him the works" refers to the use of physical coercion or third-degree interrogation as a euphemism to convey the intention of extracting a confession or information from an individual (Lavine, 1974).

Good Cop/Bad Cop

An interrogation approach where two officers take seemingly opposing approaches to elicit information from a suspect. 

Grill

To question someone intensely and persistently, often used to describe a rigorous interrogation.

Groupthink

A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when the desire for harmony or conformity results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. 

Guided Discussion

An interview technique where the interviewer suggests topics but allows the interviewee to provide detailed content. 

Guilt Bias

A preconceived notion held by interrogators that assumes the guilt of the suspect, which can influence the conduct and outcome of an interrogation. Reliance on pseudoscientific techniques can increase guilt bias.

Guilt-Presumptive Questioning

An accusatory questioning approach that assumes a subject’s guilt prior to evidence being established and frames questions in ways that seek confirmation rather than information. Guilt-presumptive questioning often includes leading questions, selective evidence presentation, and premature narrowing of investigative hypotheses. This approach increases the risk of confirmation bias, statement contamination, and false confessions, particularly when it shifts interviews from information gathering into confession-driven modes.

Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT)

A polygraph technique that assesses if the subject knows details of the crime that only the perpetrator would know. 

Hearsay

Information received from others that cannot be substantiated, often inadmissible in court but used in investigative contexts.

High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)

The High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (FBI/CID/DOD) - A Specialized, interagency unit established to develop, implement, and refine science-based interviewing and interrogation techniques for high-stakes national security cases. Formed in 2009, the HIG is a collaboration primarily involving the FBI, the Department of Defense, and the CIA. Its mission includes sponsoring/conducting research to improve interrogation strategies, developing non-coercive, evidence-based methods, and training law enforcement and intelligence professionals in effective interview techniques. The HIG also provides operational support, deploying teams when needed for high-value interrogation cases and offering guidance to improve information gathering through ethical and scientifically grounded approaches. 

Holmes 2 System

A computer system used by UK police forces to manage major investigations, including the management of interviews and other data.  

HUMINT (Human Intelligence)

The gathering of information from human sources through methods like interviews, interrogations, and covert interactions. It focuses on interpersonal communication to obtain intelligence for strategic, operational, or tactical purposes, often used in military, law enforcement, and intelligence operations. 

I&I (Interview and Interrogation)

The formal processes used by law enforcement to gather information from suspects, witnesses, and victims through interviews.

IIISC

Initial Investigative Interview Skills Course (Scottish Police College).

Implicit Accusation

Subtly suggesting involvement in a crime during questioning to observe reactions without making direct accusations.

Inculpatory Statement

A statement that implies or admits guilt, often used as evidence.

Independent Corroboration

When a suspect reveals a detail about the crime that the investigator did not know beforehand, and this detail can be verified independently.

Informant

A person who provides privileged information about a person or organization to an agency. The term usually describes someone who can supply useful intelligence regarding criminal or other nefarious activities. 

International Investigative Interviewing Research Group (iIIRG)

The International Investigative Interviewing Research Group.

Investigative Momentum

The tendency for an investigation to continue moving in a particular direction once a theory of the case has formed, especially after a confession or apparent breakthrough. Investigative momentum can discourage reassessment of assumptions, suppress alternative hypotheses, and amplify confirmation bias, making errors increasingly difficult to correct.

Invoked

"Invoked" refers to the act of calling upon a legal right or procedure. For example, a suspect might invoke their right to remain silent or their right to legal counsel, as guaranteed by the "Miranda Rights" in the United States. 

Jackson v. Denno (1964)

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the requirement for a pretrial hearing to determine the voluntariness and admissibility of a defendant's confession. The Court ruled that a confession must be evaluated by a judge in a separate hearing (outside the jury's presence) to ensure it was not coerced or obtained in violation of the defendant’s constitutional rights. This decision safeguards a defendant’s Fifth Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment rights and prevents potentially coerced confessions from influencing a jury.

Justifying Devices

These are explanations or excuses that help the suspect save face during an interrogation.

Kill Questions

See alternative question

Knowingly

With full awareness and intentionality (U.S.)

KREATIV

(K) Communication, (R) Rule of law, (E) Ethics and Empathy, (A) Active consciousness, (T) Trust through openness, (I) Information, and (Verified through science (Norway).

Language Style Matching (LSM)

The synchronization of linguistic styles between interviewers and interviewees, which can influence the outcomes of interrogations. 

Lead Assessment

Evaluating the credibility and relevance of information received during an interview.

Leading Question

A question that suggests or contains the desired answer(s), which can contaminate memory and give away case information.

LEO (Law Enforcement Officer)

An all-encompassing designation that refers to all commissioned personnel. Includes police officers, sheriff's deputies, detectives, investigators, sergeants, agents, elected sheriffs, police chiefs, special agents, and constables. 

Looping

Revisiting a subject's earlier statements for clarification and further detail.

Maximization

An accusatory interrogation strategy where the investigator exaggerates the strength of the evidence and the seriousness of the offense to induce a confession. This approach aims to make the suspect believe that denial is futile.

"Massaging"

"Massaging" refers to the use of physical coercion or third-degree interrogation as a euphemism to convey the intention of extracting a confession or information from an individual (Lavine, 1974).

Memory-Compatible Questions

Questions designed to align with the natural way memories are stored and retrieved, facilitating more accurate and detailed recall. 

Mendez Principles

A set of guidelines proposed by Juan E. Méndez, the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, aimed at protecting individuals from torture and ill-treatment during interrogation and detention. 

MG11

The UK uses an official form to record witness statements, which can serve as evidence in court proceedings. 

Minimal Encouragers

Active listening technique that includes brief, positive verbal and non-verbal responses, including words like “yes,” “uh-huh,” and “okay,” as well as engaged facial expressions and nodding. These subtle cues show attentiveness and encourage the speaker to keep talking, fostering an open environment for sharing more information without interrupting their narrative.

Minimization

An accusatory interrogation technique involving downplaying the moral or psychological seriousness of the offense, offering the suspect moral justifications or face-saving excuses. This method seeks to make confession more palatable by reducing the perceived severity of the act.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the requirement for law enforcement to inform individuals of their rights before custodial interrogation. Known as "Miranda rights," these include the right to remain silent, the warning that anything said can be used against them in court, and the right to an attorney, whether provided privately or appointed. This decision aimed to protect the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination and ensure fair treatment during interactions with law enforcement.

Miranda Warning (AKA Miranda Rights, Miranda)

A legal requirement to inform arrested individuals of their rights, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney (Miranda v. Arizona, 1966). 

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to post-event information. 

Mister Big Technique (Mr. Big)

The "Mr. Big" technique is an undercover investigative strategy developed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) to obtain confessions from suspects, often in cold cases. In this method, undercover officers create a fictitious criminal organization and involve the suspect in staged criminal activities to build trust. Eventually, the suspect is introduced to the group’s leader, "Mr. Big," who demands a confession to past crimes as a prerequisite for joining the organization or for securing protection. However, the technique is controversial, with critics warning it can produce false confessions due to the coercive tactics, inducements, and psychological manipulation involved. In 2014, the Supreme Court of Canada (Hart decision) ruled that confessions obtained using Mr. Big tactics will be presumed inadmissible unless the Crown (prosecution) can show certain standards were met, requiring oversight to confirm that any confessions are reliable and voluntarily made, given the risk of entrapment and manipulation (Canada).

Mnemonics

Memory-enhancing techniques used in the Cognitive Interview to help witnesses recall details more effectively. Mnemonics may include tools such as mental reinstatement of context, changing the order of events, and focusing on specific sensory details. These techniques facilitate deeper retrieval of stored memories, aiding in the accuracy and completeness of witness statements.

Model Statement (Cognitive Interview)

A detailed and neutral example of how an interviewee should structure their response, designed to encourage thorough and accurate information during the cognitive interview.

Monitored Call

A telephone call conducted by a suspect under surveillance, often used to gather incriminating evidence. 

MORE PIES

Active listening acronym (FBI crisis negotiations)

Motivational Interviewing (MI)

A technique used in interviewing and interrogation to build rapport and elicit information through empathy, reflective listening, and supporting autonomy. 

Mental Reinstatement of Context (MRC)

A technique used in cognitive interviews to help eyewitnesses recall memories. The technique involves asking the interviewee to mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the event, such as sights, sounds, feelings, and emotions, as well as the weather. 

Naked Confessions

Confessions that lack corroborating evidence or independent verification, making them stand alone without support from additional facts or witness statements.

National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement (1929)

See Wickersham Commission

National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA)

A series of annual federal statutes authorizing funding and setting policy for the United States Department of Defense and related national security activities. The NDAA has included key interrogation and detainee-treatment provisions, most notably the McCain–Feinstein Anti-Torture Amendment (2015), which prohibits torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment by U.S. personnel. The amendment requires that all U.S. government interrogations comply with techniques outlined in the U.S. Army Field Manual, reinforcing legal limits on coercive interrogation and reflecting a policy shift toward non-coercive, information-gathering approaches grounded in reliability, legality, and accountability.

Negative Statements

See False Exculpatory Statement

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

A psychological approach that links language, behavior, and thought patterns, sometimes applied to lie detection by interpreting verbal cues, body language, and eye movements as indicators of deception. NLP practitioners suggest that certain behaviors, like specific eye directions or speech patterns, may reveal hidden emotions or dishonesty. However, NLP is widely criticized and lacks empirical support in lie detection, as its techniques are not reliably correlated with deception, leading many experts to consider it a pseudoscientific method within evidence-based interrogation.

Neutral Question

A question posed that does not imply or give away case details.

NICHD Protocol

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development's structured interview guide designed to improve the quality and quantity of information obtained from children during investigative interviews about alleged abuse. It emphasizes the use of open-ended questions and phased, non-suggestive techniques to elicit detailed and reliable testimonies from child witnesses. 

OARS (Conversational Rapport)

Conversational rapport technique that includes: open-ended questions, affirmations, reflections, and summaries.

Off-the-Record

Informal conversations that are implied not to be part of the official interrogation. 

Open-Ended Question

A question that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no, encouraging longer narrative responses that provide more and richer information.

ORBIT (Observing Rapport-Based Interrogative Techniques)

A framework used primarily in the UK that guides police officers and investigators in managing and interviewing cooperative suspects. ORBIT focuses on building rapport and using non-coercive methods to elicit information and confessions, based on psychological research into how best to influence behavior and gain cooperation. 

Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT)

Open-Source Intelligence refers to the collection and analysis of information from publicly available sources, including news media, public records, social media, websites, and other open databases. In interview and interrogation contexts, OSINT supports interview planning by helping investigators understand background, timelines, relationships, and potential inconsistencies before questioning begins. When used properly, OSINT informs hypothesis generation and question development without contaminating interviews or prematurely anchoring guilt assumptions. OSINT tools and investigative resources are available via the Investigator’s Toolkit.

Overcoming Objections

Accusatorial interrogation strategies are used to address and refute the suspect's objections to admitting guilt. The investigator listens to the objections and turns them into opportunities to further the interrogation process.

Paradox of Eyewitness Testimony

Although EWT is regarded by many professionals as having a low level of reliability, it is the most important form of testimony as far as jurors are concerned.

Pause

A moment of intentional silence during active listening, allowing space for the speaker to think, expand on their thoughts, or share additional information. Pauses can also help emphasize important points and encourage deeper reflection, demonstrating patience and attentiveness on the part of the listener.

PEACE Model

An ethical interviewing method used by UK police, standing for Preparation and Planning, Engage, and Explain, Account, Closure, and Evaluate. It emphasizes a non-coercive approach to interviewing suspects, witnesses, and victims. 

Peacocking

Displaying authority or dominance in an interrogation setting. 

Peer Review

1. In the context of law enforcement, particularly related to interview and interrogation (I&I), peer review involves the evaluation of investigative work, including big cases and forensic interviews, by other professionals in the field. This process ensures adherence to ethical standards, accuracy, and the effectiveness of the methods used. The term is widely applied across various instances within I&I to maintain or enhance the quality of the investigative processes.

2. Research related to I&I methods and practices is also subject to peer review before publication in academic journals, ensuring that the findings are scrutinized and validated by expert peers in the field. 

Phubbing

The act of snubbing, or phone snubbing, someone in a social setting, or in an interview, by looking at your phone instead of paying attention to the person you're with. Not a great look in an interview setting.

Professionalising Investigation Programme (PIP)

A United Kingdom framework developed by the College of Policing to standardize investigative competence and promote ethical, evidence-based investigations. PIP emphasizes professional judgment, effective interviewing, and reliable evidence over confession-driven practices.

Piss Backwards

A slang term meaning a change in an interviewee’s account marked by uncooperativeness, contradiction, or repudiation of earlier statements.

Pitch

The level of highness or lowness in a person’s voice. While everyone has a natural pitch, it can vary depending on different situations or emotional states.

Plead the Fifth

A common phrase in the United States referring to an individual’s right to invoke the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, allowing them to decline to answer questions where the responses might incriminate them.

Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) 

Codes of Practice put into practice in 1984 that provide the police rules and guidelines for the detention, treatment, and questioning of persons by UK police officers.

Post-Confession Contamination

This occurs when an investigator's actions or questions after a confession influence or alter a suspect's memory or account of the events, compromising the confession's accuracy. 

Post-Event Information

Information presented to a witness or involved party after an event has occurred, which can alter or distort their memory of the original event. This effect is a critical consideration in legal contexts where witness reliability is paramount.

Pretext Phone Call

An investigative technique where a suspect is called by someone they know, and the call is monitored by law enforcement. 

PRICE

Planning and Preparation; Rapport building; Information gathering; Confirming the content; and Evaluation and action (Scottish Police).

Prisoner's Dilemma

An interrogation tactic where investigators separate two or more suspects and tell each other that the other is confessing or cooperating, implying that whoever confesses first could get the better deal. The typical prisoner's dilemma is set up so that both parties choose to protect themselves at the expense of the other participant, but the investigator gets a confession regardless.

Project Aletheia

Project Aletheia is a platform for bridging the gap between science and practice in interrogation, spanning the breadth of law enforcement and the national security space. The premise of the Project is that we are stronger together, that we can mutually benefit from each other’s knowledge and experience. Founded in 2020 at John Jay College of Criminal Justice at the City University of New York.

Props

Physical objects used to create an impression or influence the subject's behavior and responses (i.e large fake case file, blank VHS or DVD labeled "evidence"). 

Proxemics

The study of how people use and perceive physical space in interactions, including personal distance, territoriality, and spatial dynamics. It examines how physical proximity influences communication, relationships, and behavior, varying by culture, context, and individual preferences.

Rapport

A positive, trusting connection between individuals, often built through active listening, empathy, and genuine communication. In an interview or interrogation setting, establishing rapport helps create a comfortable environment where the interviewee feels respected and is more likely to share accurate, relevant information.

Rate

The speed at which a person speaks, typically measured in words per minute. The average rate of speech generally falls between 140 and 170 words per minute.

"Read Him/Her"

A slang phrase indicating that a suspect should be informed of their Miranda rights, which include the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney. 

Reflection

(Active Listening Skill) - Repeating back some elements of what has been said or implied by the interviewee. Also called reflection of meaning. See also reflecting emotion and simple reflection.

Reid Technique

A 9-Step method used in North America to assist detectives in the interrogation of suspects. 

Report Everything (RE)

A recall instruction used in the Cognitive Interview that encourages the interviewee to report all details about an event, regardless of perceived importance or certainty. This technique is based on the principle that seemingly minor or incomplete details may later prove relevant or trigger additional memory retrieval. Report Everything supports comprehensive information gathering while reducing interviewer filtering, assumptions, and premature judgments about relevance.

Resistance Handling

Strategies employed to manage and overcome reluctance or resistance from a subject during an interrogation. 

Reverse Order Recall (RO)

A method used in the Cognitive Interview where interviewees recount events in reverse chronological order. This approach adds to cognitive load and disrupts scripted or rehearsed responses, encouraging deeper cognitive processing and often revealing additional details about an incident.

Ruse

A tactic involving deception or trickery to obtain a confession. 

Scharff Technique

An interrogation method that focuses on building rapport and subtly eliciting information without the subject realizing they are being interrogated. Developed by German interrogator Hanns Scharff during World War II. Note: Scharff's biography is a must read for anyone who conducts interviews.

Science-Based Interviewing (SBI)

SBI is an information-gathering approach to interviewing and interrogation that is based on peer-reviewed behavioral and cognitive science. SBI prioritizes accurate, cognitive interviewing, reliable information gathering through open-ended questioning, active listening, rapport, Strategic Use of Evidence, and corroboration. It removes the risk factor techniques used in accusatory interviewing.

Self-Administered Interview (SAI)

A structured, evidence-based tool that allows witnesses to record their accounts independently using standardized prompts designed to preserve memory and reduce contamination. The SAI is particularly useful in early stages of investigations or when immediate in-person interviews are not feasible. It supports information quality by capturing details before memory decay or external influence. The Self-Administered Interview is available as a resource via the Self-Administered Interview.

Self-Generated Memory Cues (SGC)

A SGC is a memory cue generated according to the individual's representation of a target memory. Cues generated in this way are therefore unique to the individual in their ability to functionally represent the critical properties of the target memory.

Self-Incrimination

The act of exposing oneself to an accusation or charge of crime; to involve oneself or another in a criminal prosecution or the danger thereof. 

Sensemaking

An interrogation context provides a framework for understanding the subject’s resistance and what motivates them to engage or not. 

"Shellacking"

"Shellacking" refers to the use of physical coercion or third-degree interrogation as a euphemism to convey the intention of extracting a confession or information from an individual (Lavine, 1974).

Sketching

A memory-enhancement technique used in investigative interviews in which an interviewee is asked to draw aspects of a scene, object, or sequence of events. Sketching can facilitate recall by engaging visual-spatial memory and reducing reliance on verbal description alone. It is used to support information retrieval and should not be interpreted as a measure of accuracy, artistic ability, or credibility.

SOCPA Agreement

Serious Organised Crime and Police Act allows for negotiations between the prosecution and the accused for a reduced sentence in exchange for cooperating with the investigation (UK).  

Soft Accusation

Accusatory interviewing techinique in which an investigator indirectly suggests a subject’s involvement in a crime to observe reactions. Soft accusations may involve insinuations, hypotheticals, or minimization themes. Although less confrontational than direct accusations, they remain accusatory in function and can shift an interview from information gathering into a guilt-presumptive or confession-driven mode if used prematurely.

Soft Interview Room

Specially designed space used for interviewing individuals—such as victims, witnesses, or vulnerable populations—in a way that promotes comfort and reduces stress. Unlike traditional, often sterile interview rooms, soft interview rooms incorporate warm colors, comfortable furniture, and a welcoming atmosphere to create a more relaxed environment. This setting helps build rapport and supports open communication, particularly with those who may feel anxious, traumatized, or intimidated. They are commonly used in law enforcement, social services, and medical fields to enhance the quality and accuracy of information gathered by putting interviewees at ease.

Softening Them Up

They build rapport with the intent to confront or accuse later on. Frequently a precursor to accusatory interviewing, which will in turn waste any rapport to go after a confession.

Shift-of-Strategy (SoS)

An interview approach that involves changing questioning tactics when an initial strategy fails to produce desired outcomes. The Shift-of-Strategy approach is intended to prompt new information by altering pressure, framing, or engagement style, but it can increase risk if the shift moves toward accusatory or confession-driven techniques rather than information-gathering methods.

Spontaneous Utterance

A statement made by a suspect or witness without prompting, which can be admissible as evidence.

Statement Analysis

The practice of examining how a person phrases statements in an attempt to detect deception. Despite its popularity in some training curricula, Statement Analysis lacks empirical validation as a reliable lie-detection method. Research shows that linguistic or verbal cues alone do not accurately distinguish truth from deception beyond chance levels. Reliance on Statement Analysis can encourage premature guilt assumptions and divert attention from evidence-based practices such as effective questioning, corroboration, and information testing.

Statement-evidence contradiction

A discrepancy between a person's verbal statement and the physical, documentary, technological, or testimonial evidence in a case. Identifying these contradictions is crucial in assessing the reliability of the statement and uncovering potential deception, errors, or misinterpretations in an investigation.

Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE)

Strategic Use of Evidence (SUE) is a technique that involves withholding key evidence until after asking targeted questions about it. This approach helps create false exculpatory statements and evaluate veracity through statement-evidence contradictions, as individuals who are lying may need to alter their story when confronted with previously undisclosed evidence, revealing inconsistencies.

Sweat Box

A tactic used in third-degree interrogations, where suspects were placed in rooms intentionally made unbearably hot or freezing cold, often kept there for extended hours or even days. This intense discomfort was intended to break down resistance and compel a confession.

TEDS Questions

Tell, Explain, Describe, Show - TEDS is an acronym to assist in formulating open-ended questions and eliciting a free narrative response.

The Third Degree

A term referring to the use of extreme, coercive interrogation tactics by investigators to extract a confession from a suspect or force a statement from an uncooperative witness. These aggressive methods often involved intimidation, threats, or physical discomfort to compel compliance, raising serious ethical and reliability concerns. 

Theme Development

The process involves presenting a narrative or motive that provides the suspect with a morally acceptable explanation for their actions. The investigator suggests scenarios that align with the suspect's potential rationalizations, facilitating admission of guilt.

TIER Approach

A structured method for tactical interviewing used by UK police, standing for Think, Identify, Evaluate, and Respond, focusing on gathering intelligence effectively.  

Timeline Technique

An interview method that assists interviewees in recalling and reporting events in chronological order for a specific period. This technique helps identify key individuals involved, link them with their actions, and clarify the sequence of events, enhancing the accuracy and coherence of the information provided.

Transition Statement

A sentence or phrase that smoothly connects one idea, topic, or section to the next, helping maintain the flow and coherence of communication (i.e. You mentioned xyz). It often incorporates words or phrases used by the subject to support memory compatibility, making shifts feel natural and aiding in the recall of previous details. In interviews, this technique is typically followed by an open-ended prompt, encouraging the subject to elaborate and explore topics more thoroughly.

Trauma-Informed Interviewing

Is an approach that recognizes and respects the impact of trauma on an individual, creating a safe, supportive environment to reduce re-traumatization. It emphasizes empathy, patience, and understanding.

Tunnel Vision

A cognitive narrowing in which investigators focus on a single suspect or theory while discounting contradictory evidence. Tunnel vision is reinforced by guilt-presumptive questioning, accusatory interviewing, and confessions. Red teaming can help counter tunnel vision by challenging assumptions and testing alternative explanations.

Turning Up the Heat

Applying more pressure or using more intense questioning techniques to get a suspect to confess.

Undercover Interview

An interview conducted by someone who is pretending to be someone else, typically an undercover officer. See also "Mister Big Technique." 

VIPER

Video Identification Parade Electronic Recording, a system used in the UK for conducting video line-ups.

Voluntariness

A legal and psychological standard assessing whether a statement or confession was made freely, without coercion, undue influence, or improper inducement. Voluntariness considers the totality of the circumstances, including interrogation methods, duration, conditions, and the characteristics of the interviewee. Statements deemed involuntary are unreliable and constitutionally infirm.

Voluntary False Confessions

These occur when a person willingly confesses to a crime they did not commit without any external pressure or coercion. Reasons for a voluntary false confession may include a desire for notoriety, the need to atone for past sins, psychological issues, or a pathological desire for self-punishment. In some cases, individuals may also confess to protect the real perpetrator. 

Voluntary Statement

A statement given without prompting or pressure, often seen as more credible. 

Waived Rights (Miranda Warning)

Refers to the voluntary relinquishment of one's rights, such as the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney, as stated in the Miranda warning provided by law enforcement during an arrest. 

Walkthrough

Asking a suspect or witness to walk through a sequence of events verbally. 

WI/WA (What is/Was Asked)

Noting the questions posed during an interview or interrogation to track the information flow. 

Wickersham Commission

Formally known as the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, was established in 1929 by President Herbert Hoover to investigate issues in law enforcement and criminal justice in the United States. It was the first comprehensive national study of crime and policing and is particularly noted for its 1931 report that condemned the use of “third-degree” methods, or coercive and abusive interrogation techniques, which were common in policing at the time. The Commission’s findings led to significant reforms, advocating for professionalization, ethical practices, and improvements in training and accountability within law enforcement, shaping modern standards in criminal justice.

Third-degree interrogation in popular crime comics. Crime Must Pay the Penalty Comic - February 1948, no. 3

Within Statement Inconsistency

A subject contradicts their own previous statement during an interview.

Witness Protection

Measures taken to protect witnesses who may face danger due to their cooperation with law enforcement. 

Working the Room

Moving between different interrogation rooms or suspects, often to compare stories and gather inconsistencies (see prisoner's dilemma technique).

X-Factor Question

A surprise question intended to

atch the interviewee off-guard, potentially revealing inconsistencies. 

Yield Approach

Techniques designed to increase the amount of information a subject is willing to disclose during an interrogation. 

Interview & Interrogation References

Alison, L. J., Alison, E., Noone, G., Elntib, S., & Christiansen, P. (2013). Why tough tactics fail and rapport gets results: Observing Rapport-Based Interpersonal Techniques (ORBIT) to generate useful information from terrorists. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law: An Official Law Review of the University of Arizona College of Law and the University of Miami School of Law, 19(4), 411–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034564

Alison, L. J., Alison, E., Shortland, N., & Surmon-Bohr, F. (2020). Orbit: The science of rapport-based interviewing for law enforcement, security, and military. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780197545959.001.0001

Bogaard, G., van de Bovekamp, A. M., & Colwell, K. (2024). Assessing the efficacy of baselining in deception detection: A comparative analysis of the reality interview and structured interview. Acta Psychologica, 242(104112), 104112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104112

Brimbal, L., & Jones, A. M. (2018). Perceptions of suspect statements: a comparison of exposed lies and confessions. Psychology, Crime & Law: PC & L, 24(2), 156–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316x.2017.1390111

Dando, C. J. (2013). Drawing to remember: external support of older adults’ eyewitness performance. PloS One, 8(7), e69937. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069937

Dando, C. J., Dando, R. V., Richardson, H., Osorio Rojas, A., & Taylor, D. A. (2026). Supporting Witnesses and Victims to Invoke Episodic Retrieval Mode: Own-Generated Verbal- and Sketch-Reinstatement-of-Context Retrieval Cues Improves Recall Versus Interviewer-Generated Mental Reinstatement of Context Cues. Behavioral Sciences, 16(2), 245. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16020245

Deeb, H., Vrij, A., Leal, S., & Burkhardt, J. (2021). The effects of sketching while narrating on information elicitation and deception detection in multiple interviews. Acta Psychologica, 213(103236), 103236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103236

Fisher, R. P. (1992). Memory-enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview. Charles C. Thomas Publisher.

Hartwig, M., Granhag, P. A., Strömwall, L. A., & Vrij, A. (2005). Detecting deception via strategic disclosure of evidence. Law and Human Behavior, 29(4), 469–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-005-5521-x

Hope, L., Mullis, R. & Gabbert, F. (2013) Who? What? When? Using a timeline technique to facilitate recall of a complex event. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2, 20-24.

Jackson v. Denno, 378 U.S. 368 (1964).

Kassin, S. M., Drizin, S. A., Grisso, T., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., & Redlich, A. D. (2010). Police-induced confessions: risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 34(1), 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-009-9188-6

Knausenberger, J., Giesen-Leuchter, A., & Echterhoff, G. (2022). Feeling Ostracized by Others' Smartphone Use: The Effect of Phubbing on Fundamental Needs, Mood, and Trust. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 883901. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883901

Lavine, Emanuel Henry. (1974). The third degree: A detailed and appalling exposé of police brutality. Da Capo Press.

Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2012). Interview and interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 8(1), 1–53. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2012.13

Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).

Redlich, A. D., Kelly, C. E., & Miller, J. C. (2014). The who, what, and why of human intelligence gathering: Self-reported measures of interrogation methods: Who, what, and why of HUMINT. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28(6), 817–828. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3040

Trainum, James L.. How the Police Generate False Confessions: An Inside Look at the Interrogation Room. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Kindle Edition.

Vrij, A. (2016). Baselining as a Lie Detection Method: Baselining. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(6), 1112–1119. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3288

Vrij, A., Mann, S., & Fisher, R. P. (2006). An empirical test of the behaviour analysis interview. Law and Human Behavior, 30(3), 329–345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9014-3

Vrij, A., Mann, S., Leal, S., & Fisher, R. P. (2021). Combining verbal veracity assessment techniques to distinguish truth tellers from lie tellers. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 13(1), 11.

Wheeler-Mundy, R. L., Gabbert, F., & Hope, L. (2025). Self-generated cues: the role of cue quality in facilitating eyewitness recall. Journal of Criminal Psychology, 15(2), 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1108/jcp-05-2024-0036